It is not surprising that, of the Central Powers who took part in the First World War, Imperial Germany has received the lion’s share of historical attention. Its armies fought from beginning to end of the conflict on both the Western and Eastern Fronts. Germany dwarfed its allies – the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires and the Kingdom of Bulgaria – in terms of economic and military might. The three lesser powers suffered from major weaknesses in their high command and in industrial production, transport and communications.
These were not natural allies. Bulgaria gained autonomy from Ottoman rule in 1878, becoming formally independent in 1908. Austria-Hungary annexed the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina in the same year. Then, in the First Balkan War of 1912-1913 (see MHM 141, August/September 2024), a coalition of Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, and Montenegro defeated the Ottoman Empire and seized most of its remaining territory in south-east Europe. A dispute between Bulgaria and a combination of Greece, Serbia, and Romania over the distribution of spoils led to the Second Balkan War in 1913. This ended with Bulgaria losing the land it had gained to its former allies.
The Central Powers joined the First World War at different times, following their individual national interests. Austria-Hungary, Germany’s oldest and closest ally, was involved from the beginning of the war. It was supported by Germany in the dispute with Serbia that precipitated the July 1914 crisis. The Ottoman Empire sided with Germany after initial hesitation, declaring hostilities in November 1914. Bulgaria entered the conflict 11 months later, when it decided that this was its best route to recover territory lost to its Balkan neighbours.
Given this staggered descent into war, it was predictable that the Central Powers would fail to work out a coherent joint plan of attack. What occurred was a series of operations across different theatres, marked by limited cooperation. Even the German and Austrian general staffs failed to organise a common strategy at the outbreak of war. Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Turkey, and Bulgaria all depended on Germany for economic and military aid, and were subject to pressure from Berlin to follow its dictates.
Scholarly neglect of the war efforts of the smaller Central Powers has been redressed to some extent over the last two decades. Historians have begun to look past the weaknesses of the alliance, and the shortcomings of the Austrian, Ottoman, and Bulgarian industrial bases, to appreciate the resilience of their armies. Given the material difficulties they faced, and the limitations of their military leadership, it is remarkable that they endured for as long as they did.
In this mini-series, we examine the wartime record of all three states. We begin with a ‘special’ centred on Austria Hungary’s army, which struggled to make an impression against its Russian, Serbian, and Italian foes. The first of our pair of articles surveys the strengths and weaknesses of the imperial forces. We then take an in-depth look at the Italian front, a challenging arena where the Austrians held the line for three years before finally succumbing to total defeat.
This is an extract from a special feature on the Central Powers at war from the August/September 2025 issue of Military History Matters magazine.
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